Malapropism

      Malapropism is that type of solecism (the conspicuous and unintended violation of standard diction or grammar) which mistakenly uses a word in place of another that it resembles; the effect is usually comic. The term derives from Mrs. Malaprop, after the French 'mal a propos' or 'inappropriately', in Sheridan's comedy The Rivals, who in the attempt to display a copious vocabulary said things such as "a nice derangement of epitaphs", a malapropism for "a nice arrangement of epithets"; "a progeny of learning", for "a prodigy of learning"; "as headstrong as an allegory on the banks of the Nile", for 'allegory' is used in place of 'alligator'; and "he is the very pineapple of politeness", for 'pineapple' is used in place of 'pinnacle'. Fowler has described Mrs. Malaprop's character as the matron saint of all those who go word-fowling with a blunderbuss. Such word confusion was a familiar stage-trick in the time of Shakespeare and is to still. In Much Ado About Nothing, Dogberry with his "most senseless and fit man for the constable of the watch" and "to talk is most tolerable and not to be endured"; In A Midsummer Night's Dream, Bottom with his "there we may rehearse more obscenely and courageously" and In The Merchant of Venice, Old Gobbo with his "that is the very defect of the matter, sir" are some of the exponents of the art of malapropism. But the essence of malapropism, whether those of Mrs. Malaprop or those of Dogberry, Bottom and Gobbo, is an exaggeration of ignorance that leads to the ridiculous.   

SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE

      The Viking settlers exercised a vital influence on the growth of the English language. The Germanic word, 'viking,' was used in the old English as 'wicing' even before the coming of the Scandinavians. In the 8th century the word used for 'robber' or 'pirate'. The Vikings, referred to by the Anglo-Saxons as 'dene'(Danes), began to attack England roundabout 800. After years of warfare, the Danes conquered England. (When they settled down to live peacefully, the bitter hostility between the conquerors and the conquered was soon forgotten. The Scandinavians were after all no alien people differing widely in culture and language from the English. They came of the same primitive Teutonic languages. Moreover, the Danes under King Knut gave England a sense of political unity and stability hitherto unknown). No wonder, the Scandinavian settlement resulted in a fusion of races and of languages. The English were not exterminated by the Scandinavian settlers, but the latter were sufficiently important and numerous to influence English speech. Since all Nothumbria, all East Anglia and major portion of central England made out the district known as Danelaw, the impact of the language influenced the speeches of the Northern and the Eastern parts of England more than other dialects.

      (The early relation of the Danes with the English were too hostile to lead to much natural intercourse and we must allow time for such words as the Anglo-Saxons learnt from their enemies to find their way into literature). The numbers of Scandinavian words that appear in the old English is consequently small, amounting to only two scores. Some of these were technical terms relating to law and warfare. Most of these technical loans have been replaced by later French borrowings. Of the survive mention may be made of 'law', 'bylaw', 'crane', 'riding' etc. Most of these Scandinavian loan words were common words in everyday use non-technical and democratic in character. These included among other nouns like 'husbands', 'sky', 'fellow', adjectives like'odd', 'ugly', 'rotten', pronouns like 'she', 'them', 'they', 'their', verbs like 'call', 'die', 'take', 'want' and adverbs like 'hence', 'thence', 'whence'.

      Sometimes Scandinavian influence gave a fresh lease of life to word that was dying out. One such word is 'till' which is rarely found before the Danes invasion but becomes common thereafter. Sometimes the Scandinavians form of a common word replaced the corresponding English form. Thus Scandinavian 'egg' replaced the native 'ey'. Sometimes the Scandinavians form of a common word gained a general currency and a corresponding English form was restricted in significance. Thus the Scandinavian 'die' came into common use and ousted the native 'steorfan' which however continued to be in use in the restricted sense of 'going without food'. In some cases both the Scandinavian from and the native forms are in use and provided English with such doublets as 'no--nay', and 'shirt--skirt'. In some cases again the spelling of the Scandinavian forms were accepted for words common to the two languages. Thus old English 'swuster' and 'punresdai' were changed into 'syster' (whence modern English 'sister') and 'Thursday'. Again meaning attached to the Scandinavian forms were taken up by such words as 'dream', 'earl', and 'plough'. English also took over some suffixes, '-by', '-dale', '-thorp', to form place names and patronymic '-son' to form personal names.

      Scandinavian influence on English was almost entirely confined to vocabulary and is no marked influence on grammar and syntax. In vocabulary, however, old Norse made a considerable impact. In number, indeed the surviving Scandinavian loan words are few compared with words later borrowed from French or from Latin; many of them on the other hand, are words in frequent use and there is a Scandinavian enclave in the very central regions of the English vocabulary.

SOLUTION FOR THE QUESTIONS IN MY YOUTUBE VIDEO ON "HOW TO SOLVE RHETORIC"

And Pity, like a naked new-born babe,
Striding the blast, or heaven's cherubim, hors'd
Upon the sightless couriers of the air
Shall blow the horrid deed in every eye
That tears shall drown the wind.
The above extract contains a number of figures of speech which are discussed below:
      There is Personification in the first line as Pity, an abstract conception, is looked upon as a living being that can stride, ride and blow.
      There is also Simile in the first line, for here 'Pity" and 'babe' two different things are compared in an explicit way with the help of the word 'like'. The same figure is used when 'Pity' is likened to a 'cherubim' in a clear way.
      There is Periphrasis in the third line in 'the sight less couriers of the air' which is but a round-about expression of the 'wind'.
      In fourth line Euphemism is used in 'the horrid deed' which is the mild expression of a harsh fact -- murder.
      Finally there is Synecdoche in the fourth line in 'eye' which is a part standing for 'man'. Hence it is a case of the part for the whole.

The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
Awaits alike the inevitable hour
The paths of glory lead but to the grave.
The above extract contains a number of figures of speech which are discussed below:
      There is Synecdoche in the first two lines because here abstract nouns like heraldry, power, beauty, and wealth have been used to designate such common nouns as men of high birth, men of power, beautiful ladies and wealthy persons. Hence it is a case of the abstract for the concrete.
      There is also Climax in the first two lines, for here four ideas are arranged in an ascending order of importance.
      There is again Personification for certain abstract ideas like heraldry, power, beauty and wealth have been invested with such human qualities as boasting, making pomp, and giving; they also await like human beings. The same figure is used in the last line, too, where we observe how 'paths of glory', an abstract conception, have the living quality to 'lead'.
      There is Periphrasis in 'the inevitable hour' which is a roundabout description of the hour of death. It may also be considered as a case of Euphemism because 'the inevitable hour' is a mild expression of a harsh idea -- the hour of death.
      There is, again, Metonymy in 'grave' which stands for death. Hence it is a case of the symbol for the thing symbolized.
      Finally there is Epigram in the last line. Despite a shocking contradiction (glory leading to death) there is a deeper truth underneath, for ever; glory fades away soon after one's death.
Milton! thou shouldst be living at this hour
England hath need of thee, she is fen
Of stagnant waters, altar, sword and pen,
Fireside, the heroic wealth of hall and bower,
Have forfeited their ancient English dower
The above extract contains a number of figures of speech which are discussed below:
      There is Apostrophe in the first line where a short, impassioned address is made to Milton, a poet no longer living.
      There is, again, Synecdoche in the expression 'at this hour', for here 'hour'(part) is used to signify 'age' (whole). Hence it is a case of the part for the whole.
      There is also Personification in 'England hath need of thee', for here England an inanimate object, is invested with a human quality (hath need). The same figure is employed where certain inanimate object(like 'altar, sword and pen') are endowed with the quality of a living being ('have forfeited').
      There is also Metaphor in 'she is a fen' because here two different objects ('she' and 'fen') are compared in an implicit way. The same figure is used in 'dower of inward happiness' where there is an implicit comparison between two different object -- 'dower' and 'happiness'.
      'She(i.e. England) is fen' may also be treated as a case of Hyperbole.
      Finally, there is the employment of the figure Metonymy in altar, sword, pen, fireside, hall and bower. 'Sword' and 'pen' stand for soldier and writer -- it is a case of the instrument for the agent. 'Altar', 'fireside', 'hall' and 'bower' stand respectively for the clergy, householders, knights and ladies -- it is a case of the symbol for the thing symbolized.
Sweet are the uses of adversity,
Which like the toad, ugly and venomous,
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head
And this our life, exempt from public haunt,
Finds tongues in trees, books in the running brooks,
Sermons in stones, and good in everything
The above extract contains a number figures of speech which are discussed below:
      There is Epigram in the first line. It is an apparently contradictory statement (for, how can the uses of misfortune be sweet?) which seems to be absurd at first sight, but being closely examined, reveals an important meaning underneath.
      There is also Simile for 'adversity' is compared to a 'toad' in a clear way.
      There is, again, Personification when adversity, an abstract idea, is invested with a living quality (to wear a jewel on the head). The same figure is used when 'life', an abstract conception, is attributed with the living capacity of 'finding' diverse things.
      We also observe that in the first line the regular grammatical order of words (which would be : The uses of adversity are sweet) has been inverted. Hence it is an instance of Hyperbaton.
      There is Periphrasis in 'precious jewel' which is a roundabout description of toad stone, 'a natural or artificial stone resembling a toad in colour and form, and long believed to be formed in a toad'.
      There is further, Metonymy in 'tongues in trees'. Here the word 'tongues' (cause) is used to substitute 'voices' (effect). Hence it is a case of the cause for the effect.
      We also observe the use of Synecdoche in 'sermons in stones'. Here 'stones' (part) stand for the 'mountain' (whole). Hence it is a case of the part for the whole.
      The figure Climax is used in the last two lines where four things (tongues, books, sermon, and good) are arranged in an ascending order of importance.
      Finally there is Hyperbole in 'good in everything' which is indeed a highly exaggerated statement.
O for a beaker full of the warm South
Full of the true, the blushful Hippocrene
With beaded bubbles winking at the brim
And purple-stained mouth
The above extract contains a number figures of speech which are discussed below:
      There is Metonymy in 'South' (i.e. southern part of Europe), a place, which stands for its production, wine. Hence it is a case of the place for its production.
      There is Allusion in 'Hippocrene' which reminds us of a fountain near Mount Helicon, sacred to the Muses, and said to have been produced by a stroke of the hoof of the winged horse Pegasus.
      There is, again, Metaphor in 'beaded bubbles' for here a comparison ( on account of the roundness of both the objects) is implied between 'beads' and 'bubbles'. It may also be treated as a case of Alliteration on account of the repetition of the letter 'b'.
      There is also Personification in 'bubbles winking' because here bubbles, inanimate objects, are invested with a living quality like 'winking'.
      There is Hypallage in the expression 'blushful Hippocrene' where the epithet 'blushful' which properly belongs to a person is transferred to an inanimate object 'Hippocrene' with which it is mentally closely allied.
Finally, there is Exclamation in the first line which expresses an intense desire for drinking.
Can storied urn or animated bust
Back to its mansion call the fleeting Breath?
Can Honour's voice provoke the silent dust,
Or Flattery sooth the dull cold ear of Death?
The above extract contains a number of figures of speech which are discussed below:
      The whole passage is a fine example of Interrogation as here strong denials are made in the form of questions -- questions which are asked not for eliciting any information butt for conveying answers implied within themselves.
      There is Metaphor in the second line, as here the word 'fleeting' which properly belongs to a bird is transformed to 'breath' in such a way that a comparison (on account of their morality) between the bird and the breath is implied, but not clearly stated. Again, the word 'mansion' figuratively suggests the human body (on account of its value), and thereby also makes it to be a case of Metaphor.
      Again, 'the fleeting breath' may be looked upon as a case of Periphrasis since the phrase describes life in a roundabout manner.
      There is Personification in the third and fourth lines since 'Honour' and 'Flattery', two abstract ideas are invested with such human capacities as provoking and soothing. In the same way 'Death' is also a case of Personification since it is invested with the part of a living being, the 'ear'.
      'Honour' and 'Flattery' are also examples of Synecdoche since abstract things are referred to designate concrete beings-- honourable people and flatterers. The same figure is used in the expression 'the silent dust' as here 'dust' means 'body', the species being 'material for the thing made'.
The mind its own place and in itself
Can make a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven
What matter where, if I be still the same,
And what I should be, all but less than he
Whom thunder hath made greater?
The above extract contains a number of figures of speech which are discussed below:
      There is Chiasmus in 'a Heaven of Hell, a Hell of Heaven' because here the order of the words has been reversed for the sake of effect.
      The expression 'he whom thunder hath made greater' may be taken as a case of Periphrasis because it is an indirect and roundabout description of God.
      There is, again, Alliteration in the second line where the letter 'h' has been repeated. The same figure is applied also in the next line where the letter 'w' and 's' have been repeated.
      Finally, there is Interrogation because although the last three lines are in the form of a question, they suggest their positive answer.
Base Fortune, now I see, that in thy wheel
There is a point, to which when men aspire
They tumble headlong down; that point I touched,
And, seeing there was no places to mount up higher
Why should I grieve at my declining fall?
The above extract contains a number of figures of speech which are discussed below:
      There is Apostrophe in the first line because Fortune, an abstract idea, is passionately addressed as a living being.
      There is also Hyperbole in 'there was no place to mount up higher', for this is certainly an exaggerated statement for one(i.e. young Mortimer) who has only become the protector of the future king(i.e the prince) and not yet the king himself.
      There is Hyperbaton in 'They tumble headlong down'. In the regular grammatical order the expression would have been: 'they tumble down headlong'.
      There is, again, Tautology in 'declining fall' for both of them express the same meaning.
      Finally, there is Interrogation in the last line. Although in the form of a question, it suggests its own answer: Mortimer should not grieve for his fall.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

      Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is without doubt the finest of all the Middle English romances, for its mastery of plot handling, its realism, characterization, descriptive powers, and use of the alliterative long lines. At times the poet achieves real heights in his poetry which can stand comparison with that of any period. It occurs in the same manuscript along with Pearl, Purity and Patience, which are supposed to be the work of the same man, of whom nothing is known.It describes how Sir Gawain, a knight of King Arthur's Round Table, accepts a challenge from a mysterious "Green Knight" who challenges any one of the assembled Knights to give him one stroke on the head by the great axe he holds in hand, provided that he comes to him in a twelve month and a day and receives a same stroke from him. As they are all hesitating, for the honour of the Round Table and King Arthur, Sir Gawain, the King's nephew takes the axe and beheads the unknown Knight. Unmoved the Green Knight picks up the head calling upon Gawain to keep his word, departs at a gallop. In his struggles to keep his bargain, Gawain demonstrates chivalry and loyalty until his honour is called into question by a test involving Lady Bertilak, the lady of the Green Knight's castle. It is an important example of a chivalric romance, which typically involves a hero who goes on a quest which tests his prowess. In the liveliness and variety of its scenes, mingling of the marvelous and the natural, human and dramatic interest and the delicate psychology of characterization, the poem is unique among romances. It is a medieval romance in which Sir Gawain is held up as the model of virtue and chivalry.

Areopagitica

           Areopagitica is a noble and impassioned plea for the liberty of the Press. It takes its name from the Areopagitic speech by the Greek orator Isocrates in the 4^th century B.C. The ancient address called for a revival of the power and prestige of the high court of Athens, the Areopagus. The tract by Milton was occasioned by the Licensing Act of June 14, 1643, which required that all books be licensed by an official censor before publication. Milton’s work is addressed to parliament in an attempt to persuade its members to repeal the restrictive measure. Milton reviews the entire history of censorship from ancient  times. It has always been tyrannical. He defends the free employment of books in order to attain knowledge in a complex world where good and evil are woven together. Milton reaches eloquent heights in his central contention that men cannot be made virtuous by compulsion. Milton Attacks the measure as a hindrance to the search for truth and a threat of intellectual stagnation.When we consider the style of Milton’s prose we must keep in mind how it was occasioned. His pamphlets were cast off at white heat and precipitated into print while some topic was in urgent debate either in Milton’s or the public mind. Hence in method they are tempestuous and disordered; voluble, violent, and lax in style. They reveal intense zeal and pugnacity, a rich fancy and a capacious scholarship. They lack humour, proportion and restraint; but in spite of these defects they are among the greatest controversial compositions in the language.

PART-2 SOLUTION TO THE PROSODY QUESTIONS OF MY YOUTUBE VIDEO ON "HOW TO SOLVE PROSODY"

                Anapaestic and Iambic tetrameter are used here while the first and third lines are Hypermetrical. 

            Trochaic tetrameter and pentameter are used alternately. The last feet of the second and last lines are catalectic.

             The above lines are written in Trochaic trimeter with the exception of the last line which is an Alexandrine (i.e. Iambic hexameter). The last foot of each of the second and fourth lines are Catalectic.

               Iambic tetrameter and trimeter are used alternately. There is Anapaestic substitution in the second foot each of the second and third lines. The third foot of the first line is a spondee.

              Iambic tetrameter and trimeter are used alternately. The second and last lines are hypermetrical.

              Iambic pentameter is used here with the following variations: the first feet of the second and third lines are trochaic and anapaestic respectively. The first line is hypermetrical. 

PART-1 SOLUTION TO THE PROSODY QUESTIONS OF MY YOUTUBE VIDEO ON "HOW TO SOLVE PROSODY"

                   The predominant meter used in the above extract is Iambic pentameter. The second foot of the first line, the fourth foot of the second line and the second foot of the last line are Trochaic. The fourth foot of the first line, third of the second and fourth of the last are Pyrrhic while the last foot each of the first and second lines and the first foot of the last line are Spondee.

            Iambic pentameter is used here with the following variations. The first line is Iambic trimeter. The second line is Iambic tetrameter. The first foot of the fourth line is Trochaic. The third foot of the third line is Pyrrhic. The fourth foot of the third line is Spondee. There is Elision in the first syllable of the last line.

                 Iambic pentameter is used here with the following variations. The first foot of the first line is trochaic. the fourth foot of the last line is Spondee.

                 

                 Iambic tetrameter is used here with the following variations. The first foot of the first, second, and third lines are Acephalous.

                   Anapaestic and Iambic trimeters are combined. The first foot of the second line, the second foot each of the third and fourth lines are Anapaestic and the rest are Iambic. The third line is Hyper-metrical. The first three heavily accented monosyllables of the first line from three separate feet.

            Iambic tetrameter and trimeter are used alternately. The first feet of the first and third lines are Acephalous.