SCANDINAVIAN INFLUENCE

      The Viking settlers exercised a vital influence on the growth of the English language. The Germanic word, 'viking,' was used in the old English as 'wicing' even before the coming of the Scandinavians. In the 8th century the word used for 'robber' or 'pirate'. The Vikings, referred to by the Anglo-Saxons as 'dene'(Danes), began to attack England roundabout 800. After years of warfare, the Danes conquered England. (When they settled down to live peacefully, the bitter hostility between the conquerors and the conquered was soon forgotten. The Scandinavians were after all no alien people differing widely in culture and language from the English. They came of the same primitive Teutonic languages. Moreover, the Danes under King Knut gave England a sense of political unity and stability hitherto unknown). No wonder, the Scandinavian settlement resulted in a fusion of races and of languages. The English were not exterminated by the Scandinavian settlers, but the latter were sufficiently important and numerous to influence English speech. Since all Nothumbria, all East Anglia and major portion of central England made out the district known as Danelaw, the impact of the language influenced the speeches of the Northern and the Eastern parts of England more than other dialects.

      (The early relation of the Danes with the English were too hostile to lead to much natural intercourse and we must allow time for such words as the Anglo-Saxons learnt from their enemies to find their way into literature). The numbers of Scandinavian words that appear in the old English is consequently small, amounting to only two scores. Some of these were technical terms relating to law and warfare. Most of these technical loans have been replaced by later French borrowings. Of the survive mention may be made of 'law', 'bylaw', 'crane', 'riding' etc. Most of these Scandinavian loan words were common words in everyday use non-technical and democratic in character. These included among other nouns like 'husbands', 'sky', 'fellow', adjectives like'odd', 'ugly', 'rotten', pronouns like 'she', 'them', 'they', 'their', verbs like 'call', 'die', 'take', 'want' and adverbs like 'hence', 'thence', 'whence'.

      Sometimes Scandinavian influence gave a fresh lease of life to word that was dying out. One such word is 'till' which is rarely found before the Danes invasion but becomes common thereafter. Sometimes the Scandinavians form of a common word replaced the corresponding English form. Thus Scandinavian 'egg' replaced the native 'ey'. Sometimes the Scandinavians form of a common word gained a general currency and a corresponding English form was restricted in significance. Thus the Scandinavian 'die' came into common use and ousted the native 'steorfan' which however continued to be in use in the restricted sense of 'going without food'. In some cases both the Scandinavian from and the native forms are in use and provided English with such doublets as 'no--nay', and 'shirt--skirt'. In some cases again the spelling of the Scandinavian forms were accepted for words common to the two languages. Thus old English 'swuster' and 'punresdai' were changed into 'syster' (whence modern English 'sister') and 'Thursday'. Again meaning attached to the Scandinavian forms were taken up by such words as 'dream', 'earl', and 'plough'. English also took over some suffixes, '-by', '-dale', '-thorp', to form place names and patronymic '-son' to form personal names.

      Scandinavian influence on English was almost entirely confined to vocabulary and is no marked influence on grammar and syntax. In vocabulary, however, old Norse made a considerable impact. In number, indeed the surviving Scandinavian loan words are few compared with words later borrowed from French or from Latin; many of them on the other hand, are words in frequent use and there is a Scandinavian enclave in the very central regions of the English vocabulary.