SHORT NOTE: The Golden Notebook by Doris Lessing

              The Golden Notebook is extremely long and not very well organized; despite its being considered a novel, it is a compendium of Doris Lessing's views on all those issues which have occupied her. The story of the novel is of writer Anna Wulf, the four notebooks in which she records her life, and her attempt to tie them together in a fifth, gold-coloured, notebook. Lessing indicates in her introduction to her novel that the major theme of The Golden Notebook is that of cracks or mental breakdown. To emphasize the significance of this theme, in the opening page of the novel, one of the first statement made by Anna is: "everything's cracking up". The form of the novel and its topics were praised by some and scorned by others when the book was first released. The novel experiments with chronological sequence and narrative voice and it deconstructs language as an endeavor to search for meaning and truth. All of these experimental aspects became the principle elements of the postmodernist movement that followed the book's publication. The Golden Notebook also touches on feminist issues that were only just beginning to be debated at the same time it was published. Additionally the book openly discusses the protagonist, Anna, as being attracted to communism. At the same time, however, Anna is dissatisfied with communism as a practice. Anna's fragmentation mirrors the fragmentation of society. Horrors of war left people afraid and divided, unable to connect. Anna is unable to connect pieces of herself and of her life and of her art. That is why she splits herself into different selves: Anna the mother, Anna the friend, the writer, the communist, and Golden notebook is an attempt to connect all the pieces and bind the book The Golden Notebook together.

CONSIDER BEOWULF AS AN EPIC

         The epic is a large narrative poem dealing with great serious subject in a noble and elevated style. The hero is much above the average run of people on whom depends the fate of a nation. He may be a quasi-divine  figure, but in any case the hero must be a man of national figure. Aristotle considers epic to be second only to tragedy although the Renaissance critics rank epic the highest literary genre.There are two types of epic-- epic of growth, traditional epic, primary epic, authentic epic or folk epic and epic of art or literary or secondary epic or artificial epic. Homer's Iliad and Odyssey and the Anglo-Saxon Beowulf may be called epics of growth. Virgil's Aeneid and Milton's Paradise Lost may be called the epics of art.
          Beowulf, an epic of more than three thousand lines in length, is work of the Teutonic race, a branch of who came to England in the 5th century. There are so many digressions in the story of Beowulf that it is almost impossible to give an adequate synopsis of the narrative. In outlines it may be said that, Beowulf, son of Ecgtheow, sails to Denmark with a band of heroes and rids the Danish King Hrothgar of a terrible monster, called Grendel. Beowulf meets this monster face to face and after a terrible fight wounds him to to his death. But the monster has a mother who comes to seek vengeance for the death of her son. After a harrowing combat with the she-monster, Beowulf puts her to death.Beowulf, fitting feasted and rewarded, returns to his native land. He becomes King of the Geatas and after a prosperous reign of some forty years slays a dragon which had ravaged his land, but in the fight he himself receives a mortal wound. The poem concludes with the funeral ceremonies in honour of the dead hero.
            Beowulf is not merely a poem dealing with the adventure of the hero, Beowulf, but there are at the same time epic elements in it. An epic poem should be universal representing a panorama of life. The scope of an epic poem embraces war and peace, men and God, life and death; in a comprehensive and encyclopedic way, its representation should be objective. The scenes, events and characters form an interrelated and solid reality, being presented from a consistent and impartial viewpoint, the action of an epic resembles that of a myth. It should have its own logic and intrinsic significance. The actual progression of the narrative should in itself carry the main burden of meaning.
           If these are the qualities of an epic, Beowulf , is an epic. It comprehends life and death, peace and war, men and gods. The poem shows the life cycle of a hero, Beowulf, fond of a people. It shows us human society at peace in Heorot and at war in Sweden and elsewhere. Hrothgar's hall Heorot is the home of all that is noble and venerable in human life and society-- order, customs, complements, ceremony, feast, poetry, laughter and vows. Rightly W.P. Ker says: " The beauty and the strength of the poem of Beowulf as all true epics, depend mainly upon its comprehensive power, its inclusion of various aspects, its faculty of changing the mood of the story". Beowulf's fight with Grendel touches upon the springs of mortal terror, making us apprehensive of the real adversaries to be met in this world, while the fight with Grendel's mother touches upon the terror which is far away from the human habitations-- the terror which is accompanied with a charm and beauty.
           Beowulf is a faithful repository of the popular tradition and ideals of the Teutonic race, originally a few detached lays or ballads consisted of the adventure of Beowulf. These were dove tailed in an organic whole lay an unknown author. The Pagan story has some Christian interpolations. There are distinct references to Genesis, the Creation, the story of Cain and Abel and the day of Judgement. Christian elements are there but the customs, manners and ceremonies are equally unmistakably pagan or heathen, treasure and cremation are heathen and pagan. What we feel is that a heathen epic has been Christianised. Consistent with the pagan spirit of the epic, Beowulf emphasizes the elements of fate. Even at the point of death Beowulf speaks--
                                   "Not a pot of fly the ward of the will
                               But at the rock wall it shall be as wyrd wills
                                 Wyrd, the measures of the lives of men."
 
           The style of Beowulf is consistently dignified. The massive simplicity and sustained narrative of notable events capture popular imagination. The heroic and stirring thoughts have been expressed in grand style.
            The wealth, the variety and picturesqueness of expression have heightened the epical grandeur of Beowulf. As in the Homeric poems, we have lots of synonyms for kings, retainers, wars, weapons, and the sea. The circumlocutory words and phrases known as 'kennings' are distinctly epical for they have replaced the compound words of the traditional epics. The characterizing adjectives are however relatively absent. So are the ornamental epithets and poetic metaphors. The similes of the Homeric type do not figure prominently in Beowulf. There are just brief and single comparisons e.g. 'fugle gelicost' i.e. "most like a bird", 'liggegelicost' i.e. "most like fire", 'style gelicost' i.e. "most like steel".
            There are however critics who do not recognize Beowulf to be an epic. W.P. Ker says that it is not an epic because the story is commonplace and the plan is feeble. It is more like a nursery tale than a heroic story. S.A. Brooke holds the same view. In his opinion, it is narrative rather than epic poetry. The subject has not the weight or dignity of an epic poem. The poem lacks epic unity.
            But in the true epic manner it weaves together legend and history, things familiar with things told or dreamt or believed. The story is set not in the air, nothing or in a fabulous country, it is part of the solid world. It recreates for the modern man the world of Northern Europe in the pre-christian era. It is this chiefly that makes Beowulf a true epic poem that is a narrative poem of the most stately and serious kind.   

OLD ENGLISH/ ANGLO-SAXON RELIGIOUS/CHRISTIAN POETRY

      The literature of the Anglo-Saxon period can be easily classified into two groups-- Pagan and Christian. The former represents the poetry which the Anglo-Saxons brought with them in the form of oral sagas. The crude material out of which literature was slowly developed on English soil, such as Beowulf; the latter represents the writings developed under teaching of the monks. Before the coming of Christianity to England, English literature was mainly heathen or pagan. With the introduction of Christianity in island and the conversion of the people, the Anglo-Saxon poets turned away from pagan themes common to old Germania and sought subjects for their poetry in the Bible or in the lives of the saints.
      Anglo-Saxon religious poems are divided into two groups. The groups are named after the two famous poets. The two names connected with the Christian poetry are those of Caedmon and Cynewulf.
       In Ecclesiastical History of English People Bede tells the story of Caedmon, who by divine inspiration was transformed from a state of tongue-tied ineffectiveness into that of poetical ecstasy. He entered monastery of Whitby, became a monk and afterwards sang of many Biblical events. As Caedmon was divinely inspired he composed only religious poems.
      Caedmon's best known poem Genesis, exists in two versions. The first Genesis A tells the story from Creation to the Fall of the Angels and Genesis B thereafter upto the episode of Isaac. The first is, on the whole dull, but the second has some fine passages. Allied to Genesis is the poem Christ and Satan which comprises three poems, ' Lament of the Fallen Angels', 'Descent to Hell', and ' Temptation of Christ by Satan'.From these names Milton's indebtedness to Caedmon is quite obvious. Many regards these poems to have been the work of the several poets and it is difficult distinguish the portions which may be definitely ascribed to Caedmon. The Christian spirit is apparent in the descriptions of the gentler aspects of nature and of the Garden of Eden, but the older note of sternness is visible in the descriptions of the battles. In Biblical stories Caedmon introduced vivid dialogue which may be said to be the earliest signs of the dramatic genius of the English people. Among other poems attributed to Caedmon, are Daniel and Exodus which are based on or are paraphrased from the Vulgate, the Latin version of the Bible. They are more or less colourless. The other poem Judith is a dramatic epic fragment of unequal merit.
        Cynewulf is the other famous poet of the Anglo-Saxon religious poetry. Many regard him as the greatest of the Anglo-Saxon poets after the author of Beowulf. Four poems contain the signature of Cynewulf. Those poems are Christ, Juliana, The Fates of the Apostles and Elene. Unsigned poems attributed to him or to his school are Andreas, The Phoenix, The Dream of the Rood and Guthlac. Christ is a didactic poem of some 1600 lines. It falls into three parts. The first part deals with the advent of Christ on the earth, the second with His ascension to judge the world. The Dream of the Rood is regarded as the greatest of old English poems because of its unusual lyric, tenderness, imagination and piety. It is the earliest dream vision. The cross tells the poet of the crucifixion and the resurrection. Cynewulf was devoted to merciful Christ. He saw Christ with his eyes of a pious Christian. To him Christ is the symbol of love. He hates sin, not sinners.
        Cynewulf is more artistic and scholarly than Caedmon. He had great power of expression, surer technique and real descriptive powers. His lines are flowing and melodious, his style is free and easy. His ideas are broader than those of Caedmon.
         The account of Anglo-Saxon Christian poetry which is given here shows us that at that time people had different attitudes towards God. In the 17th century Donne and his followers produced some fine religious poems. The works of Cynewulf and Caedmon are not equal to them in poetic style and feeling; but they had their own historical and literary importance.
          

OLD ENGLISH PERIOD PROBABLE SHORT QUESTIONS

Q.1. Name the manuscripts in which old English poetry is preserved. Where were they found?
A.1. The surviving old English Poetry is preserved in four manuscripts attributed to the eleventh century, a) The Junius Manuscript given to the Bodleian Library (Oxford); b) The Exeter Book given to the Exeter Cathedral by Bishop Leofrie in the 11th century; c) The Beowulf Manuscript in the British Museum; d) The Vercelli Book in the Cathedral Library of Vercelli in North Italy.

Q.2. Mention four lyrical poems that appear in the Exeter Book.
A.2. The Exeter Book contains Deor's Lament, Juliana, The Phoenix, Wulf and Edacer, The Wife's Complaint.

Q.3. What does 'Widsith' mean? When did St. Augustine arrive in Britain?
A.3. 'Widsith' means far traveller. St, Augustine came to the British islands towards the end of the 6th century(597).

Q.4. What is meant by Kennings? Give two example.
A.4. 'Kennings' mean picturesque compounds used by the old English poets. They have metaphorical quality. Seawood is used for ship; Peace-weaver for women.

Q.5. Name four Christian poems the Junius MS contains.
A.5. The Juinius MS contains the four Caedmonian poems-- Genesis, Exodus, Daniel, Christ and Satan.

Q.6. Mention the poems attributed to Cynewulf.
A.6. Poems attributed to Cynewulf are Andreas, The Dream of the Rood, Phoenix and Guthlac.

Q.7. Name four poems of Cynewulf bearing his signature in runic letters.
A.7. The four poems of Cynewulf bearing his signature in runic letters are Juliana, Christ, The Fates of the Apostles and Elene.

Q.8. Which Anglo-Saxon poem a mythological bird is named after? To whom is the bird compared?
A.8. The Phoenix attributed to Cynewulf is the mythological bird. The bird is compared to the virtuous in this world.The nature of the bird is like the chosen ones, the followers of Christ.

Q.9. Which Anglo-Saxon poem has a female warrior protagonist? who might be its author?
A.9. In Judith, the female warrior Judith is the protagonist. She rallies the Hebrews to attack the Assyrians. She beheads the drunken Holofernes. The authorship of the poem is unknown. It is attributed to Cynewulf.

Q.10. What is earliest extant refrain in Old English poetry?
A.10. Refrain is the recurring line at the end of each stanza. Anglo-Saxon lyric poem Deor's Lament has the strophic form with a refrain.
"That he overwent, this also may I."

Q.11. Name two war poems in the Anglo-Saxon period that have different conclusions.
A.11. The Battle of Brunanburh ha for its theme an actual war fought between the Saxons and Scots in which Saxons were victorious.
          The Battle of Maldon has for its theme the battle which took place in 993 and in which the old chief of the East Saxon met his death and the poem ends in sorrow.

Q.12. Mention two Anglo-Saxon poems that reveal the life of a scop.
A.12. Widsith and Deor's Lament reveal the life of a scop. Widsith records the travels of a scop from court to court and in Deor's Lament, the scop laments how he is banished by his master.

Q.13, Name Caedmon's most important work. What is it about?
A.13. Caedmon's most famous work is Genesis. It is a poem about God and Angles in heaven, rebellion of the angels, of the fallen angels in hell, their council and design on man, the temptation of Adam and Eve and their fall from Paradise. It is a poetic paraphrase of the Biblical story.

Q.14. In which dialect is the text of Beowulf preserved?
A.14. The dialect of the Beowulf text is West Saxon, though there is clear evidence that it was written in some Anglian dialect but whether Mercian or Northumbrian is uncertain.

Q.15. To what race did Beowulf belong? Whom did he help from a monster?
A.15. Beowulf belonged to the race of Geats. He came to help Hrothgar, the king of the Danes for the monster Grendel and Grendel's mother.

Q.16. To what century did Alfred belong? What are his principal works?
A.16. Alfred belonged to the 9th century. He was the king of Wessex. He translated or got translated pastoral care of Pope Gregory, The History of the World of Orosius, The Ecclesiastical History of Bede, The Consolation of Philosophy by Boethius and the Soliloquies of St. Augustine. The Anglo-Saxon Chronicle inspired and sponsored by Alfred was his greatest achievements.

Q.17. Who is 'the father of English prose'?
A.17. King Alfred.